Study on understanding research process

Study on understanding look bear onResearch regularityology refers to the various sequential steps select by a tec in translateing the job with certain(prenominal) objectives in mind. It is an explanation of the order of systematic and critical investigation into an identify subject of translate. With an explanation of the pieces in the concept of Research Onion (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007) the interrogati onenessr get out outline the steps adopted to do this enquiry. In shortly we hatful say that a look methodology is the description, explanation and confession of various methods of imparting look (Sharavanavel, 2006).3.2. UNDERSTANDING enquiry PROCESSThe concept of look into onion plant (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007) will be use to understand the look into process employ by the go overer.The main layers in the look into onion ar question philosophy, seek approaches, outline, choices, period horizon, and proficiencys and methods of nurture array. An explanation of some these elements of look into onion will provide the detective with required knowledge to abide this examine (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007).Figure 3.1 opening Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil (2007)3.2.1. inquiry PHILOSOPHYA question philosophy is a belief or an idea regarding the collection, interpretation, and analysis of information collected. in that respect argon various philosophies are explained in Saunders look into onion. The close to signifi green goddesst among them are Positivism, touchableism, interpretative, Objectivism, Subjectivism, Pragmatism, Functionalist, Interpretative, Radical humanist, Humanist and structuralist (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007).Positivism holds reality as stable. An objective view point can be described by this. This philosophy further says that knowledge that are not based on positivism is invalid and blurred (Miller Strang Miller, 2010). Realism is a philosophy that holds scientific approach to develop ment and knowledge . The basic assumption of this philosophy is that which is genuinely is. It is independent from the belief of the people. There are two types of naive realism. The one is deal and the other critical realism. From the point of view of a direct realist the valet is static and having no change. Critical realism holds change as unalterable (Buchanam Bryman,2009). In Pragmatism problems are dealt with straightaway. This philosophy is more than than interested in results or truth rather than the principles associated with it. (William James, 2009) This philosophy holds that a concept or theoretical principle should be set on the basis of how it whole caboodle (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007).The philosophy adopted by the research worker in this work realism3.2.2. RESEARCH APPROACHESThe second last layer of the research onion of Saunders (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007) is research approaches.APPROACHESDEDUCTIVEINDUCTIVEFigure3.2Source Created by the author (2010)There are two types of approaches the Deductive and Inductive (Jonker Pennink, 2009).3.2.2.1 Deductive climb upIt is a journey from general to occurrence. Here the hypothesis and the theory are canvass first and then move to results that are more specialized. Here closing curtain follows logically from the available facts (Jonker Pennink, 2009).3.2.2.2 Inductive ApproachIn this approach an experimental annotation takes the researcher to a result. Here specific observations will go to more generalizations and forming up of theories. It is from specific to general. This method is primarily utilise in the soft research (Myers, 2009).3.2.2.3 Quantitative ApproachQuantitative methods always focus on the numbers and its frequencies. It does not emphasize on the experience and meanings merely quantify the data collected. In quantifiable approach the data will be subject to rigorous and strict analysis (Kothari, 2008).3.2.2.4. Qualitative ApproachIn qualitative Approa ch the data is collected mainly to describe factors rather than reaching to a statistical inference. It is an unstructured exploratory research method. Here the important factors of character, behavior, attitude, opinion etc are subjectively assessed. (Myers, 2009) Usually qualitative studies are used for explanatory nominates (Kothari, 2008).This research shoot is a qualitative research with an inductive approach. Here the researcher will look into the specific situation of the nurses in the selected infirmary and attempt to move to the generalization of the findings.3.2.3. RESEARCH STRATEGYThe next important layer in the research onion is research strategy. There are various strategies that researchers adopt for a particular research study. In Saunders research onion various research strategies are explained. Some of the strategies are experiment, survey, action research, case study, grounded theory, ethnography and archival research (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007).Experimenta l research is mainly used for the research in visible sciences. It is used to identify the cause effect relationships and verifying inferences. The main features of this proficiency are isolation of factors, replication of experiment, and quantitative measurement of results (Sharavanavel, 2006).Survey research studies large and small populations by selecting and studying samples elect from the populations to discover the relation back incidence, distribution and interrelations of sociological and psychological variables. This research is mainly used to investigate social and psychological factors (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007).Case study is a comprehensive study of a social unit. Here the subject of the study is a person, group, or a social institution. In this research the context is analysed in detail. Real life situations in real life context is analysed and studied (Sharavanavel, 2006). execute research is a study associated with a particular project and problem (Coghlan Brannick, 2009). The objective of this research can be finding immediate settlement for a problem faced in a society. Therefore we can say that action research is concerned with existent life. It studies the what, how, and why of actual life. In short it is an attempt to understand the present issues and a jock to predict the future changes (Jonker Pennink, 2009).Grounded theory is a qualitative research study. It is mainly used in the social sciences. When the traditional scientific method looks to perplex the research with a hypothesis this method is adopts the system of going promptly into the data collection first. All the data collected are fixed in different codes to identify common factors. From the group of these codes then a theory is formed (Charmaz, 2006).Ethnography is a unique qualitative research method. In this study the researcher will stay in the research location. The researcher stays with the population and get a first open information from the particular culture or group (Murchison, 2009).The final element in the Research strategy is Archival research strategy. It means the completed study will be based on the materials of the study unbroken in some archives by some other researchers. In this strategy a huge quantity of data is available and so often the data remain un dominatelable. Therefore it is not possible to chance on casual conclusions on the basis of such types of data (Graham, Towl . Crihton, 2010).In this research the researcher has adopted the strategy of a case study to withstand data from the samples selected. The study will be conducted among the nurses in a private hospital.3.2.4. CHOICESThe next layer in the research onion is Choice. These choices can be divided into Mono method, Mixed method and Multi method. In this researcher adopts one method for his study from various methods of research. In Mixed method the researcher adopts generally two methods such as qualitative or quantitative research methods. In M ulti method a number of research methods are brought together to investigate or to make a study (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007).In this study of the occupational sample of the nurses the researcher has adopted mixed method and multi method of choice. Yet only the qualitative research method is used here by the researcher to do the studies on the occupational tension among the nurses.3.2.5. TIME HORIZONESTime Horizons can be indicated as a age target fixed. A time boundary is usually fixed for the closedown of a task or activity. It refers to a planning or a preparation. Here the time limit for the completion of a research study is explained. There are two types of time horizons. The first one is foil Sectional and the second is Longitudinal. In Cross sectional study the time is prefixed for the completion a study. In longitudinal no time is limit for the data collection, data analysis, and other completion of the research. Behavioral studies usually conducted in longitudinal methods as it needs a long time for observation (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2009).In this study of the occupational stress of the nurses the time horizon was overcome sectional method that was adopted by the researcher. The time horizon for conducting the research was prefixed and planned. A limited period of time was allotted to the researcher to conduct the data collection for the samples selected.3.2.6. DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSISThe about important elements in a research study are data collection and data analysis. A systematically collected data and its ripe analysis will answer a research question. It is a technique with a procedure (Bryman Bell, 2007). The reliability and validity of a research is like a shot applied to the measurement of data (Wood Ross-Kerr, 2010). There are two types of data collected for a systematic analysis for any research. They are elemental selective information and Secondary Data (Kumar, 2008).3.2.6.1.The Primary DataPrimary Data refer s to that information that are generated first time or that are generated to accept the specific requirements of the investigation at hand. Primary data is collected directly from the respondents or the subjects of experiment (Yin, 2010). Here there is a proper control over the information gathered (Bhattacharyya, 2006). The major disadvantage here is that it is more time consuming. Some times the primary data collection becomes more difficult as the suitable persons or samples are not at hand (Reason Bradbury, 2006).There are various sources of primary data. They are, Questionnaire, Interview Schedules and interviews, focalisation groups, Case Studies, Experiments, Observations, Surveys and Discussions (Collrel McKenzie, 2010).The researcher, in this study, has collected the primary source of data by employing interview schedule, and structured questionnaire. The Questionnaire enlists questions, which translate the research objectives into specific questions. The question must also encourage the respondent so that the necessary data is obtained. In this study the researcher has employed both factual as surface as opinion and attitude questions.3.2.6.2. Secondary DataSecondary data is not collected directly from the respondents. Here the data has been collected by some others (Bhattacharyya, 2006). It can be collection of the review of the primary data. The collection of lower-ranking data is cheap in terms of time and economy. For a comparison of two types of statistics and reaching to an inference auxiliary data can be very effective. Yet the secondary data can be outdated and can be subjective as it has already evolved in the mind of somebody else. Secondary data can be unmanageable and vast making it to be inappropriate for a particular purpose (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007).There are various sources of secondary data. Books, Journals, News Papers, Reports and publications, Articles in magazines and websites, politics statistics, company or or ganization statistics (Bryman Bell, 2007).In this study to collect the secondary data the researcher will be using various materials pertaining to the exit of the research. A number of books, health related articles, health journals, web pages, hospital statistics and news papers will be used for the collection of secondary data.Data analysis is an important area in the completion of the research (Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2007). There are various techniques to analyse the data collected, such as Frequency Distributions, and Cross Tabulations, Descriptive Statistics, T-Tests and Analysis of Variance, Self Analysis, Regression, Data decrement or Factor analysis, Cluster and Discriminant Analysis and Hierarchical Liner copy etc.(Bernard Ryan, 2009).In this research the researcher has used the self analysis method for the analysis of the data collected. The Data will be analyzed systematically. The information collected will be presented in tables with equivalent charts and diagr am wherever required. The researcher also used pie chart and bar diagrams for data analysis.3.3. RESEARCH DESIGNA research design is an outline of the plan, structure and strategy of the research. This outline specifies the how the research is carried out, what methodology and techniques are adopted for achieving objectives. With out such a logical and systematic plan no scientific study is possible (Myers, 2009).EXPLANATORYEXPOLORATORYDESCRIPTIVERESEARCH DESIGNFigure 3.3Source Created By the Author (2010)The Exploratory study aims at formulation of a new insight into a phenomenon. The Descriptive study aims at depicting accurately the characteristics of a particular group or situation. Explanatory study only and explanation of something happening will be looked into (Pope Mays, 2006).In this study of the occupational stress of the nurses the researcher has used a descriptive design. It enables the researcher to describe or present the picture of the phenomenon under investigati on. This design is used in the study to describe the relationship between the occupational stress and the nurses employed in the hospital selected for the study.3.4. SAMPLESA sample is a littler representation of a large whole from where it is taken. It is a section of the population selected in such a way that they are the representative of the instauration (Kothari, 2008).3.4.1. Sample SizeSample size is the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. For the study here the sample size is 40.3.4.2. sample TechniquesIt is the selection of a part of an aggregate on the basis of which a judgment about the joinity is made. It is the method of selecting some fraction of the total population or target group. This small group will cede judgments to be made about larger groups. Basically there are two types of ingest methods used. They are probability sampling and non probability sampling (Kumar, 2008).Figure 3.4Source Saunders, Lewis, Thomhil, 2009)In r esearch process, there are probability sampling methods and Non-probability methods used to obtain data from the samples selected.Since this research is carried out among the nurses on the job(p) in a hospital, the accessibility of the respondents in the sample population cannot be ensured. Moreover, the researcher employs a couple of associates to collect data and for them time and availability of respondents are crucial. Thus, the researcher has used Non-Probability Convenient method of sampling in which all the members of the sample have equal chances of selection and they have been chosen according to their availability and convenience of the research associates (Offredy Vickers, 2010).3.5. CONCLUSIONThe explanation of the research onion helped the researcher to understand the process and different variables of the research. This chapter presents the methodology used by the researcher. The methodology used in this study will is qualitative and inductive. The researcher will also use primary and secondary sources of data to make his analysis and conclusion.

Effects Of Globalization On Business Education And Employment Economics Essay

cause Of globalisation On Business Education And economic consumption Economics Essaythither is a common saying that is existence used today that goes The macrocosm today is a small village. This is as a result of the m any(prenominal) an new(prenominal)(prenominal) economical, political and technological inventions and changes that have been in place in the youthful past that have do improvement in communication, transport, and trade. These advanced technological advances have made it easy for individuals from different locations and regions in the world to induce in different locations in the world and this has resulted to globalization.globalization is a abut where a local hunting lodge, culture, frugality, or practice is integrated to surpass the local boundaries to a usher were the local culture and economy r all(prenominal)es the commonwealth from other cultural backgrounds that arnt from the same cultural background (Schifferes, par.3). These local regional p ractices argon integrated internationally through the amend systems in the communication, transports and trade. These ensure that in that respect is an improved communication, trade and transport mechanism that is the most effective variety meat that boosts globalization.globalization has got some effects that accompanies some of the effects of globalization to the society includes positive and nix effects that it has on the economy, political and socio -cultural fields. This paper shine ups the ship canal that globalization has touched the Business field, Education sector and Employment sectors.Employment is one sector amongst the many sectors that are affected by globalization this sector is affected by globalization in two styluss. These are positive and negative ways. In this section we are going to highlight on these effects of globalization in the employment sector generator with the positive impacts. Globalization has improved the media coverage in the globe this has direct to sensitizing the people and enabled the people to know there rights. It has too curb to the creation of many employment opportunities that are varied. For example, the employment of the media personality, the instauration of the international Non Governmental Organizations (NGO), and other innovative groups that go forth in some point create the employment opportunities (Tutor2u, par.4).Globalization has resulted to the growth of employment opportunities in the several(a) countries especially in the create worlds. The most notable transnationals companies that have shifted their return to developing countries includes the Finland international company Nokia moving to Asia where there is cheap comminute and plenty raw materials thus providing employment opportunities to the locals of the countries (Tutor2u, par.5).Globalization has alike improved employment prospect through the introduction of expatriate employment. These are cases where people are employed in other regions that arent there native and grant expert roles to the companies that they are employed. For example is the way the diplomats are deployed in mixed countries to represent there fields interest in the country that they are deployed (Tutor2u, par.4).Globalization has in addition resulted to the growth of employment, because it has produced pair room for competition among the local and multinational companies. This is for the reason that there is equal room that allow ensure that the companys go forth be in a position of getting a tasteful market for there products. This will result to the development of companies enhancing competition and the companies will employ the people to work in the industries.For the negative aspects, globalization also renders many people jobless especially in the highly-developed worlds. Consequently, reservation the people from the developed world jobless on the other hand, the in one case in the developing world are employed in these m ultinational companies (Tutor2u, par.2).Globalization has positively and negative affects the training sector, some ways in which education is positively affected is the by the technological improvements that led to the introduction of the internet, social media, global information and telecommunication systems. These improvements have positively affected the education system as the assimilators can learn from there live or in a place that has internet access. Thus fashioning education easy and interesting to the schoolchilds as it is more interactive compared to the way it was initially (Chinnammai, p.3).Globalization has also resulted to internationalisation of the education system this is where the student can be in a position to learn what is being taught in another region in the world. This is because of the system that is aimed at making the students in the region to be with the same education that is accepted universally. For this reason, the students in the high schools and universities engage in other university transfers thus making them to be diverse in their respective area of specialization. The students know the ways in which the other regions are well and what they experience thus exposing the students to the different environmental settings of the people (Schifferes, par.5).The invention of electronic equipments and good storage facilities has resulted to the improvement of education in the world. This is because the students can be able to reach all the pertinent materials that are necessary for their education (Chinnammai, p.2). In that they will be in a position to get the necessary information they need in class as they will be in soft repeat and posted by the teacher in the internet. Thus each student will be able to access the information easily without any problem. This will improve the education system as the students will be in a position to pass their final examinations as they will be in a position to deliver in there class wo rks. Therefore, education has also made interesting as a result of globalization. This is because the teaching and standard that are provided by these companies will be improved thus improving education of these groups (Chinnammai, p.4).Globalization has positive and negative effects on business, some of the positive effects is when it provides equal opportunity for companies to advertise their products and thrive in the world market. The improved communication facilities has made it easy for the companies to reach their respective customers world wide thus providing equal room for businesses and other business opportunities to thrive in these regions.Globalization has also resulted to improved quality and production by the companies and this has made the consumer have prize for their money (emailprotected, par.4). This is experienced when the companies that are producing the same products aims at making the stovepipe quality of their products than there competitors. For example t he mobile phone companies that are broadly competing in making the best products thus make the customers have a wide range of choice when buying a phone (Schifferes, par.2).Globalization has also resulted to the rapid development of the developing countries thus improving the lives of the countries citizens and at the same time reducing the gap between the poor and the rich. For causa in countries like India, Brazil, Thailand, Singapore, Argentina and China among others developing companies, that have rancid out to become countries whose economy are rising faster. This is because of the many multinational industries set their base in these countries and in the process these companies and countries mutually benefiting from each other. Thus helping the country economy to grow thus ensuring that the countries economy grow steadily (emailprotected, par.2).Globalization has resulted to the globalization of the world markets this is when the producers of the products have shifted their solicitude in producing products that are suitable for the specific markets. The multinationals will evaluate at the requirements of the people in which it has set its camp. This will make the company break off on the likes and dislikes of the people in these regions and from that make products that are well appreciated with the locals. Also the companies get change magnitude returns in the form of there increased sales, an example is when the General Motors GM looks at the likes of the Indian market and from the evaluation the make a vehicle that goes in an Indian name this mechanically appealing to the Indian motor vehicle buyers (Tutor2u, par.1).Globalization has also compete a leading role in killing of the local industries in the developing countriesThus making it difficult for the companies to survive thus the collapse and repudiate to survive due to lack of support from its citizens (Schifferes, par.4). Its evident that globalization has also as well resulted to the de gradation the natural reserves in the triad world countries and this has resulted to reduced economy of the countries and a the same time making the population of the people to be more poorer (Tutor2u, par.2).Globalization has also resulted to the barrier of the third world companies to take care of there increasing population this is because the companies products are sold at low costs. This eventually makes the government peck low revenue which is inform of taxes (Tutor2u, par.4). This result to the country resorting to borrowing from the developed worlds and the donors that will help the country sustain itself. As a result, the country becomes imprisoned with debts that it cant relieve itself from thus making it difficult for these developing countries to benefit from the global trade as they are denied the room of expanding and at the same time they are exploited with the multinational companies.Work Citedemailprotected Effects of Globalization on Indian Industry http//busine ss.mapsofindia.com/globalization/india-industry/Chinnammai, Singh. Effects of globalization on Education and Culture, 2005 Schifferes, Steve. Globalisation shakes the world, 2007. Tutor2u, globalisation and business effects on business 2010

The morality of toture: Suspected Criminals And Terrorists

The morality of toture Suspected Criminals And TerroristsThe article of faith of distress has been brought back off into the forefront of philosophical debate being the September 11th 2001 terrorist attacks in New York bringing some the War on Terror. So practic anyy so, that whirl has been considered as a way of combating problems with suspected criminals and terrorists. The matter of anguish has been the centre of levelheaded discussion, often being juxtaposed against the human rights issue. Cases such as Abu Ghraib, the prison in Iraq and the detainees held at Guantnamo Bay, brace increased the publics sense of issues surrounding wring, and have fuelled debates concerning the true liberalness of democratic countries which countries manage the US be so-called to encapsulate. What is much, should these democracies be condemning chastely wrong topics like curse, or should their prime concern be the safety and security of its citizens? Furthermore, how stinkpot these two opinions be reconciled, and what implications impart this have for the law?Why Is crucify Morally Wrong?It is heavy to the understanding of this debate to recognise why scud is seen as inherently wrong with strong moral objections, and why it is regarded as a violation of rights. Only hence, foot we unravel its importation when posed with questions of terrorist threats and its repercussions on the legal system. If we atomic number 18 un fitting to dispel what it is ab verboten scud that we find virtuously inconceivable then it is hard to measure out under what circumstances it substructure be practiced or even up legitimised.Ces atomic number 18 Beccaria, wrote in his paper, Moral Protest, the legal opinion made by aggravator whitethorn grow to such an extent that having filled the whole of the sensory field, it leaves the single-foot victim no freedom to do anything but choose the quickest route to relieving himself of the immediate pain. Thus, torture ca n be seen as session two areas of concern, not only does it involve the application of extreme amounts of pain and suffering it overly infringes on a somebodys right to a neat trial. These both amount to why torture is chastely wrong in its means of interrogating suspects. Within Western democracies, a key conception is the principle of human autonomy. on that pointfore, torture aims to completely disregard superstar of the essential foundations upon which commonwealth was built. It reduces a human to such a degree that they destroy all traces of individuality so that they are unable to make decisions. A hag-ridden being is only capable of compreh give noticeing one thing that being the urgency to be released from pain. It is this power that allows the torturer to gain the information or confession he wishes. In The moral wrongness of torture, Fatima Kola describes this farming as an render to annihilate agency. gouge can annihilate agency because it seeks to lower th e person to a standard in which they cannot make rational choices, being loose to physical or psychological torment. Hence, it is understandable why torture is considered morally wrong, and how anyone who accepts this as a means of interrogation must be able to incisivelyify the degradation of private autonomy and human rights.We must also consider why it would be so morally repulsive to be tortured. Henry Shue believes that one of the main reasons for this is that it constitutes as an attack on the defenceless. This idea is yeted by Sussman who has a unique tune as to why torture is so repugnant. He states in, Whats Wrong with Torture? So construed, torture turns out to be not just an extreme form of cruelty, but the pre-eminent just an extreme form of cruelty, but the pre-eminent instance of a kind of hale self-betrayal. Thus torture is a distinctive kind of wrongness not often found in other acts. As what is embedded in the core of torture is the form of self-betrayal that it harbours. The victim if forced into a state of defencelessness and powerlessness. They are broken d protest until they lack all personal autonomy and rationality. Whats more, Sussmen believes that the victim is lowered to such a degree that their own body becomes their main attacker, leaving them to olfaction debased. Such a shot then naturally finds the physical and emotional strains of torture as abhorrent, interlingual rendition it morally wrong in all circumstances.Alternative Arguments That Justify TorturePerhaps it is because union is no longer as shocked at images of torture that is has become more accepted within legal discussions. painting to scenes of pain and brutality in culture has allowed for the great unwashed to be more open minded about the debate of torture. Yet, amongst this, two distinct arguments exist. there are those that believe torture can be morally loose where it prevents a greater devastation from occurring, that it is the lesser of two evils. Arguments from this standpoint are useful, which allow the torturing of one life to bear on many guileless lives. The main focus for utilitarians is the end goal and the idea that torture can be justified according to the circumstances at the time. This is particularly master(prenominal) in terrorist cases, where utilitarians argue that a terrorist has lost his claim to a form standard of human rights by endangering the lives of innocents, and therefore cannot expect to have the said(prenominal) amount of protection as an ordinary citizen.Henry Shue, gives a further explanation to justify acts of torture in that, since putting to death is worse than torture, killing is sometimes permitted, especially in war, we ought sometimes to permit torture. However this argument is flawed as there are other more authorised factors that need to be considered rather than just the degree of harm done. If we are to compare the acts of killing that take place in war to the torture of a suspect ed terrorist, then the roughly obvious difference is that in warfare, both parties have equal opportunities to kill or be killed. Whereas a terrorist or criminal who is being tortured is subject to the whim of the torturer. Thus, I do not believe this creates a valid argument to justify torture.On the other hand, there are those who believe torture should be out-and-out(a)ly prohibited, and that under no circumstance can it be morally justified. These arguments are based on a deontological collect. Utilitarians claim this view is morally self-indulgent and sometimes it is agreeable to sacrifice your morality for the greater good. However, deontologists are criticised for their lack to reconcile with what is known as the ticking bomb scenario. one and only(a) should consider the hypothetical example of where a man is aware of the place of a bomb that has been planted in a large shop centre. He knows it testament be detonated within the next few hours and the jurisprudence hav e him detained. In this situation is it morally wrong to torture one person to find out the location of the bomb, in order to save the lives of many? In this most extreme situation, even the strictest deontologists cannot deny that torture may be justifiable to such a threat, despite it been inherently wrong. In this context there are two conflicts at play. There is the moral consequence that exists in torturing someone however this has to be balanced against the moral consequence of the death of many people, (it seems to be a simple matter of numbers.) Thus it is bouncy to consider this moral predicament as a whole and as not individual parts. In this way, deontological morality is not completely lost by rendering utilitarian views as applicable.Moral deliberation can thusly be colonised by balancing the deontological objections of torture with the justification given by utilitarians, as Sussman argues, torture constitutes a moral wrong that requires more justification than k illing.Thus, by focussing on the morality of the act, we are allowed to mediate between absolute ban and utilitarian ideas. However each circumstance gives rise to different issues on morality and torture, as not all situations will follow the ticking bomb scenario. At which point can you draw the stress between appreciating the opposing demands and upholding moral integrity? As stated earlier, it is vital to look at the situation as a whole, made up of constituents, in order to weigh up where the morality lies. Only then is it possible to make credible conclusions and allow us to make a morally right decision.Implications For The LawFor the law to include a homework for torture would be very brave, and require an act of moral courage. In Torture and Positive Law Jurisprudence for The White House, Waldron argues that legalising torture will have negative ramifications on our legal system, leading to eventual malfunction. The fanny of negating torture into law finds it origins in morality. The morally wrong nature of torture is reflected and reinforced by the law. The laws represent its regard for the superiority of human rights and its printing in personal autonomy. It embodies the concept that human life is sacred and must be shown respect. Therefore by including torture within the law it gives the impression that it is not disapproved in the same way and the moral integrity of the legal system becomes undermined. Promoting respect amongst your fellow citizens becomes a hypocritical concept, as torture is one of the worst offences against a person. This gives a tainted message to lodge as the law no longer prohibits torture as a method of interrogation.Legalising torture will also have further foreign repercussions, especially for countries like the US and UK. These countries have a firm draw near in not tolerating torture in other countries that do not give enough weight on the importance of human rights. By legitimising torture, these countries will be sending the wrong message to the rest of the world, implying that they go on the State to use torture as a means to a way.R. Dworkin, in Laws Empire, believes that legalising torture could affect public morality. The law is a weapon which guides citizens through their everyday lives, telling them the correct way to behave and what is acceptable conduct in society. In this way, prohibiting torture from the law mirrors the message of coarse respect and harmony that we wish to permeate through society. This could be compromised with the cellular inclusion of torture within the legal system, lowering peoples standards of morality. The recognition of torture could have further affects on society through its interpretation that people may find it suitable to be violent to those who they feel deserve it, thus generally increasing levels of crime. There is a risk that torture may not encompass a sense of inherent wrongness and verboten as it does now. As people become more open to i ts implications and practice, being confronted by its affects on a daily basis, so torture will become part of what is accepted.Therefore, the strength of the law will be naughtily undermined with the prohibition of torture no longer upheld to symbolise actions that can be regarded as morally wrong. As torture is claimed to be one of the most appalling acts that can be committed, its justification will lead to questions such as why other wrongs, which are considered as a lesser wrong than torture are not also legalised. Waldron concisely summarises this concept as the unravelling of the surrounding law. Sangeeta Mandhir, in Basing arguments for legalising torture on moral justifications, describes this as having a domino-type effect. In that once the prohibition of torture is challenged, it will be harder to justify why other acts such as battery, which is considered less vile than torture, is not also made legal by law.Furthermore, if torture becomes legitimised, than the suppose d guilt felt by the torturer is weakened. Since the act is no longer punishable it will justify his actions and so reduces the level of guilt, and in turn this is dissertate affects for what is seen as moral. If no guilt is felt then one cannot feel he has committed an immoral act.Indeed what makes torture worse for society is the justification in that it serves to benefit the community. This implies that society gives torture a enactment in which it can be implemented by allowing it into the legal system. As the torture is being carried out in the name of societys security and safety, citizens can be said to hold a shared responsibility for the floor acts performed upon the victims of torture. Therefore, the State has multiple factors that are intrinsic when considering the legalising of torture. Consisting of not only of the end result, that being security for the nation but also the upholding of liberal democratic values upon which society is based, so not to compromise princ iples such as liberty, integrity and human rights.ConclusionIt is clear that for a debate on torture it is impossible not to consider morality, as the two concepts are inextricably linked. Torture, by definition in this essay is regarded as morally wrong and inherently abhorrent. Yet there seems to be circumstances for which people believe it could be the only course of action. Thus, if there are situations in which torture can be justified, should the State consider reversing the absolutist prohibition stance on torture within the legal system that exists at present? In my opinion, the answer is no. Torture is fundamentally abusive to our morality and ethics. Its existence in society risks undermining the humanitarian principles that also exist. Despite the utilitarian views concerning the welfare of the greater good, what needs to be remembered is that the short term benefits for legalising torture for situations such as the ticking bomb scenario have to be calculated against t he long term consequences of legalising such a morally detested act, for its effect on society. I believe these two polar concepts can be reconciled through reasonable deontology. This approach allows for torture to occur in a situation that poses a serious threat to society, yet it does not justify the act and still remains firm on the view that torture should be legally prohibited in the law. As Jens David Ohlin in The Bounds of Necessity, believes, legalising torture opens a Pandoras Box of unsavoury consequences, especially for society. decree should not be allowed to excuse torture as a morally right way of interrogating criminals or suspected terrorists, for if this is allowed we stand to lose the fundamental principles that the law is supposed to uphold, thus changing the nature of societys moral commitments.

Post Natal Depression Case Study

business office Natal Depression bailiwick StudyTable of ContentsCase StudyC atomic count 18 course of studyMedical Point of viewThe Role of the controlconstruction a therapeutic relationshipRespect and EmpathyCommunicationTackling the problemThe h whizzsty Therapy and alternative therapy.Working the therapy with RachelProblems met during sessions.ConclusionCase Study.A 21 year white-haired peeress presented at Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) stating that she has these images in her mind that she is vent to vilify her baby. She was experiencing an excessive fear of what she susceptibility do to her baby since these thoughts were coitus her that she was going to knock the babys head a relieve unrivaledselfst the w either.She was physically diswhitethorn with fear and anxiety. She had reduced her food in outcome and this had resulted in considerable burthen loss. She was non sleeping at night prima(p) to tiredness, lethargy which was hindering Rachel (imaginary name) from do her daily chores.The pregnancy was un imagened exactly her boyfriend Robert (imaginary name) was actually corroboratory during and after the pregnancy. He was precise worried much or little Rachel since she had a eat up change in character and from a happy go easy-heeled person she had turned into an introvert al expressive styles worried and d takecast.Rachel pard unrivalledd that she had always thought that perplexhood would be an enjoyable conclusion in biography. She had always dreamt of this period much thanover she had never imagined that it would end up to be the worst dumb rig of her tin. She was so focused on her baby that she had forgotten how to live. She was all the clock beat concentrating on her babehood, how much she had felt overlooked by her m separate at that prison term and her innermost fear was that she entrust end up behaving analogous her that is why she had stop operateing, going out and enjoying everyday life. Despite this, she was quality guilty that she was non prominent enough attention to her baby.CIT wisecracks follow up sessions for 3 to 4 weeks, during which Rachel was asked to discover her problems and prioritise them. By placeing aras w here she would like to mitigate, she would be littleening her suffering and make herself discover break-dance this was done unitedly with the arrest.C atomic subdue 18 stick outMedical Point of viewRachel was seen by the CIT psychiatrist who prescribed antidepressants with the aim to subdue and alleviate Rachels mood. Glasser (2003) complained that it is a grieve that nowadays psychiatrist and medical doctors prescribe psychiatric drugs prior giving counselling sessions commencement. The role of the harbor regarding her treatment was to educate the persevering regarding the brilliance of concordance and informing Rachel or so whatever side personal effects that mogul lead when catching treatment.The Role of the controlThe r ole of the fellate is to sponsor the long-suffering get better by offering the optimum level of alimony in wander to empower her patient and answer him/her improve his/her quality of life. Smith, Wolf and Turkel in 2012, explained that for the patient to be cured, s/he require to be c bed for as no curing can occur without caring (p.137). The nurse c be plan should be planned together with the patient in order to identify the patients take, plan and set goals to overcome the obstacles. Kelsey (2013) stated that NHS is violenceing on patient participation in the care plan as this will help the nurse to shackle more with the patient while the patient will chance more empowered. This concept is firmly believed at CIT, and it was always stressed that all professionals work for optimum care delivery together with patient. The patient alike has the even off to choose family members and/or friends whom he wished to be involved in his/her care.Building a therapeutic relation shipIn order to formulate a care plan with the patient, a therapeutic relationship must be built for a successful outcome. Caring is base on a relationship and for relationships to be effective twain parties must be involved, (Govier, 1992). The fulcrum of nursing care is building a nurse-patient relationship by engaging with the patient and his carers.Building a therapeutic relationship helps the nurse to gain indispensible learning slightly her/his patient whilst the patient learns how to invest the nurse (Lehman et al., 2004). Although according to nurses trust is vital for building a therapeutic relationship, this can be very difficult to establish with the patient.Literature states that trust has been a debatable bailiwick in research it does non concern exclusively on the health care profession just includes also the institutions and other works providing the care, (Laugharne Priebe, 2006). In Malta at that place is still a good amount of stigma regarding rationa l Health and Mental Hospital thus people are unnerved to talk intimately their psychological health problems. The stigma that surrounds the name of the mental health hospital in Malta still carries fear of the unkn witness and beliefs about mental ailment hinder the patients from assaying help. This often results in unappeasable deterioration leading to an involuntary admission (Farrugia, 2006).The identical thing happened with Rachel at the beginning of our sessions when she was still terrified to discuss her innermost thoughts, believing that she would be labeld and labelled as mentally ill thus providing grounds for an admission. Rachel inevitable to overcome her fears and start to confide in the nurse.In order to gain her trust, the nurse had to reassure Rachel that no disability will come to her and if she wishes CIT could offer her care in the community reassuring her fears regarding hospitalisation. This could only happen if Rachel agrees to work with the team membe rs and keep to the plan which they had concord on together. Rachel agreed with the proposal inviting her boyfriend to join the plan, which he accepted. Support and information was provided to both parties and they were well-provided with the plan.Respect and EmpathyThe nurse assured Rachel that both parties should respect each other. Papastavrou et al (2012) explains that to appearing respect towards a patient one should allow autonomy, show dignity towards the person, care for him/her holistically and ensure privacy and confidentiality. Assuring the patient that since she is seeking help, the teams aim was to provide that help and non to judge her thoughts and actions.For the nurse to be able to beneathstand the patient better she has to lay out him/herself in the patients shoes and this skill is called Empathy. Empathy was found reformative to humanize the care delivered to the patient (Barker, 2003). When the nurse shows that his/her aspirations are genuine and is move to understand the situation by offering help and keeping placements, the patient will start to trust her/him.CommunicationEstablishing trust, showing respect and empathy to the patient, needs good communication skills Taylor, Lillis, Lemone, Lynn, and Smeltzer (1989), claimed that a therapeutic relationship can never be built if there is no good communication skills. It is unconditional for the nurse to learn to listen attentively to verbal communication exclusively also to learn to ascertain the non-verbal communication that the patient is sending. Through the non-verbals, the nurse can extract information which the patient wishes to hide such(prenominal) as fear and anxiety through her body language (Stuart, 2009). Glasser (2003), emphasised on the importance to allow time for patient to narrate their problem, in order to be able to assess the patient in depth.Tackling the problemShe does not like her life at the moment.She misses work and school (she was learning art, her interest is drawing)She hates the thought of becoming like her motherShe hates the thoughts that are obscuring her mind preventing her from enjoying life.The nurse went through the list of problems written by the patient and together with Rachel she well-tried to group them into categories. Keeping in mind that CIT service is provided over a limited amount of time, it is of utmost importance that the team tackle the urgent problems which put one over prevented the patient from functioning normally and reaching a Crisis. For subsidiary problems, Rachel will be referred to another team who can offer utmosting term care.The first two problems discussed were the situation that she is absent from work and not attending art school at the moment. This fact is making her feel useless and lonely. She is not doing these things because she thinks that if she starts to do things that she used to enjoy, she will neglect her child. This will make her worst fear that she will become like h er mother come true. This do it easier for the nurse to narrow the amount of problems because in agreement with Rachel they decided to group all the three problems under one top dog fear of becoming like mum. Rachel admitted that if she could be sure that she would be zilch like her mother she would feel less stressed.The second problem was her grotesque thoughts which were persecuting her. During the first meeting they discussed at space the issue of harming her child and what opportunity there was that she would actually harm him. She took so much care of her child since his birth three months ago that it was highly unlikely that she would ever harm him. In globe she was caring fulltime for the child, taking care of him 24 hours a day and never leaving his side. Rachels boyfriend assured the nurse that she never left her child unattended. He explained that they were living with her mother who took care of the house chores and gave them moral bet on whilst Rachel took care o f her child. later discussing all this with Rachel it was cogitate that what she was vox populi was unhappy, she lost her joy of living. It was master(prenominal) for Rachel to try to control her thoughts and worries and to try learning to sort them out. First she needs to work out if the worries are founded or not and when that answer is found she needs to choose whether to give the sack or believe them. The nurse opted to work with Rachel on the steps of Reality/ Reality Theory by Glasser to help her overcome these fears.The Reality Therapy/ prime(prenominal) therapy.William Glasser developed Reality therapy way back in the sixties and it was based on identity theory, (Zastrow, 2010). The last two decades Glasser noted that his therapy focused more on human behaviour, how can it be altered and improved leading him to change the name of Reality Therapy to Choice Therapy, (Wubbolding, 2013). The choice theory explains how the life of the individual is determined by the choices h e made. Every individual has his perceptions about his/her reality of life and according to Glasser the individual behaviour is in aeonian attempt to narrow amid what we want and what we see (Zastrow, 2010 pg 491). The aim of the therapy is to help and teach individual to satisfy the internal motivation and or prefatory psychological needs.The Choice therapy focuses on the basic needs of the individual. Glasser (1996) explained that the therapy emphasised the tetrad basic psychological needs which included belonging, power, freedom and survival (Jong-un, 2007). be refers to family and friends. People with whom a person can heartyise, enjoy him/herself with, as well as feel loved. Power refers to the individual achievements in life such as achieving dreams and feeling worthwhile. Having your own space, acting independently, creation autonomous and deciding for yourself covers the need of freedom. Whereas, survival needs are covered by nourishment, refer relationships and she lter. Sunich (2007) in his article argued that Glasser wrote about five basic needs and the ones mentioned higher up and adding fun.Contrary to traditional theories, the Reality Therapy promotes the idea to focus on the here and now and reduce concentrating on the past. The therapy is based on the patients willingness to change, make choices, take responsibility and sustain commitment. Its aim is to assess and identify the unmet needs of the patient exploring what behaviours they are displaying that either countenance or interpose with them meeting their needs (Sunich, 2007 pg.3).Working the therapy with RachelThe nurse explained how choice therapy works and Rachel agreed that she would like to give it a try. The nurse explained that reality therapy is best summarized as WDEP which means wanting, doing, evaluation and planning, (Cameron, 2013)In Rachels situation, it is important to focus on what she really Wants she wished to get rid of her thoughts and fear. It was explained to her that she needs to start to learn to identify unrealistic thoughts and learn to control them. after(prenominal) the problem was ascertained the nigh step taken was to ask Rachel what she was Doing to try and get what she wished for. Rachel tried to explain what she had been doing but Evaluating the situation together Rachel admitted that the method she had chosen was not work. After that Rachel and the nurse agreed to try and formulate a new Plan which will help Rachel gain her joy in life back,(Cameron, 2013) .In the first session Rachel get outd herself as blocked in a b need tunnel, she was afr advocate to talk about her thoughts because the nurse major power think that she was going grue close to. but could feel that with the right corroborate there is hope for her indisposition. The nurse had to explain to Rachel that she should stop labelling herself as depressed and concentrate on how she was feeling at that moment. Rachel admitted she was feeling unhappy, and thi s was caused because the patient had stopped doing the things, she liked to do so that she would be able to concentrate on her son 24 hours a day 7 days a week. Although she knew that she was still fearful of the thought that she expertness harm the baby. The nurse explained that feeling unhappy for a reason is not being crazy the important thing is doing something about it to improve the situation (Glasser, 2003).The thought that she might harm the baby was explored at length. Rachel admitted that she never did anything to harm her baby, she loved him unconditionally, and she took care of his Adls. She never misses his ap insinuatement at the baby clinic where they confirm that the baby is very good for you(p) and this was confirmed by Robert. The nurse documented everything they said on a page divided into two columns, labelled good care and neglect After Rachel finished, the nurse handed her the paper and explained to her what she had done. All the things Rachel had stated were listed under the good care column and the neglect column remained empty. Then the nurse asked Rachel Seeing this paper how much are the chances that you are neglecting your son? Rachel stared amaze at the paper as she answered none, thus this makes your thought unfounded. The nurse explained to Rachel needs to learn to do this exercise each time she has a thought so that she can identify if the thought is realistic or just an imaginary one.So they planned Rachels homework until her coterminous session which focused mainly on identifying the thought and reasoning it out. After the first session she confessed that she felt better the fear that she was going crazy subsided, she felt that she was not alone any more in her juicy tunnel and hope was instilled.Sessions went by and Rachel started to learn how to control her thoughts better but choosing to ignore them. She was better but not good enough yet. Rachel had to start to stay away from her son a couple of hours so she has time for herself. It was the biggest step for her and as she described it as the most unhingeful but with the help of Robert and their extended families she started to work a couple of hours a week. This made a drastic change in Rachels mood and she started to feel happy again. She started to make friends and felt that she belonged in society again and not isolated anymore.Happiness or mental health is enjoying the life you are choosing to live, getting along well with the people near and dear to you, doing something with your life you believe is worthwhile, and not doing anything to deprive anyone else of the same chance for happiness you hand (Glasser, 2003 pg 7).Problems met during sessions.Seeing the story in writing might look as if it had been easy to empower Rachel enough to achieve goal. It included four weeks of intensifier counselling with two planned sessions a week and several border calls from Rachel asking for support and reassurance. This could be done by praising Rach el for her decisions and actions. at that place were generation that the patient had to be confronted about her decision for example you are thinking and assuming that your mum will not be unfastened to look after your baby. Did she show any signs of mistreating him or being unromantic towards the baby? Are these just your thoughts tormenting you or there are facts which might lead you to think that she is incapable of looking after him? There are many authors who criticise this method because of the above they argue that it is a harshly confronted therapeutic approach towards the patient. Wubbolding and Brickell (2000), did not deny it but emphasised the fact that reality therapy is a gently confronted approach. Glasser (2002), explained irradiately the consequences of septenary deadly habits, which may arise during reality therapy session. These habits are criticising, blaming, complaining, nagging, threatening punishing and bribing or honour to control, but they cannot be a llowed in any relationship because they will only destroy it (Sommers-Flanagan Sommers-Flanagan, 2012).There was one episode at the beginning when Rachel entered the use unannounced shaking and sobbing. She was so desperate at that moment that she could not even talk. The nurse waited for Rachel to calm down but each time she did and the nurse asked her to talk Rachel ended up sobbing again. After more than half an hour, in a soft but stern juncture the nurse had to tell Rachel that she had to speak up if she wanted help. The statement might have sounded insensible and blunt but it was all about the reality of the situation Rachel understood that and reached for a paper and with salient bother wrote what was lamentable her. Sommers-Flanagan Sommers-Flanagan (2012) agreed with other above authors who believe that Reality therapy at times is too directive and might become almost offensive and unethical towards the patient.ConclusionRachel started to look forward to her therapy session she worked hard on her problems, unploughed with the plan and gradually she reached her goal. Basic knowledge about the therapy helped the nurse patch the sessions but also made her aware of the need for more intensive training (Sommers-Flanagan Sommers-Flanagan, 2012).Post Natal Depression Case StudyPost Natal Depression Case StudyThe Experience of Health sickness Level 2 Assessment Client Study goal and the service user experienceThis essay details the experiences that I had in dealings with and observing a Mrs. N, a 28 yr old lady who safely delivered a baby female child in December of last year. Her major problem was the evolution of post original stamp, but there were a chassis of contributory factors which were relevant in her slip, one of which was her conclusion and ethnic background which coloured both her expectations and her reactions to the various landmarks which punctuated her illness trajectory.1. depict a specialized lymph node/user and pr ovide a pictural but non-judgemental description of his or her personality, family, heathen and cordial background (include employment, education, hold etc).Mrs. N is a Bangladeshi lady who has been married for seven eld. It was an position marriage. She is 28 yrs old which means that she was married comparatively late for her shade. Her husband, (Mr. N) is a year older than her and has been living and working in the UK for 8 years as a capital of the United Kingdom Transport bus driver. He has been working to set up a home in the UK and it was always the intention that Mrs. N would come to the UK when conditions were stable for them.Mrs. N has lived in her in-laws home in Bangladesh until last year when she was granted permission to enter the UK and live with her husband. The seven years that she spent with her husbands family were very difficult for her. She had a commodious deal of hindrance in coping with her mother-in-laws (Mrs S.) exultant and dictatorial manner. Mrs S felt that it was her place to mould and shape her daughter-in-laws life and manners to suit what she considered to be her place in society.Mrs. N had only a limited education and would be considered to be less well educated than her husband. This was a major issue for the husbands family and there was the underlying feeling that he could have done better for himself. Mrs S appeared never to miss an opportunity to remind Mrs. N of this fact. (Tseng, W et al. 2001)An additional factor was that both Mr. Mrs. N were intensely aware of the heathenish and family expectations on them to have children. Although Mr. N frequently visited his wife in Bangladesh, she had not conceived for 6 years, which led to anxiety between the couple and friction between Mrs. N and Mrs S.When Mrs. N eventually became pregnant, she came to the UK to live with her husband in a culture that she was un well-known(prenominal) with and could only speak rudimentary English. She felt very isolated and had diffi culty in coping with the day to day problems of living.2. translate a brief outline (no more than 200 300 words) of the bag of their need for health care (i.e. pregnancy or other specific physiological condition) highlighting only those aspects that may have implications for their ethnical and amicable health and well-being.Mrs. N had a relatively uneventful pregnancy and a normal delivery. Routine midwife post delivery checks were normal, but it was sight buy the health visitor that Mrs. N was becoming progressively more withdrawn, tearful and unable to cope with the new baby at about the 3 month period. This was difficult to assess as Mrs. N had difficulty in expressing herself and also was reluctant to involve the healthcare professionals in what she dictum as her problem. There was some debate amongst members of the primary healthcare team as to whether these changes were indicative of post natural depression or whether they were due to social isolation or perhaps a comb ination of both factors.Post natal depression and cultureA number of studies have shown that post natal depression occurs with a similar incidence across virtually all cultures and civilisations. (viz. Marks, M. N. et al. 1992). It is known that perinatal psychoses are a leading cause of paternal morbidity and suicide related to such morbidity is the major cause of maternal mortality in both the UK and in Northern Europe. (CEMD 2001). There is no good quality make work detailing the prevalence of such mortality in Asian countries, but there is no tell to suggest that it is in any way significantly different from the European figures. In any event, one can understandably deduce that post natal depression (and the other perinatal psychoses) are a major cause of debility.Post natal depression is also known to be associated with longer term consequences for maternal mental health, marital problems and also the psychological health of the marital partner. (Asten P et al. 2004). It is also known to be associated with a number of adverse effects on the social and cognitive development of the infant and other siblings in the family. (Murray, J et al. 2003)A brief overview of the literature on the subject however, shows that the great majority of the studies conducted into the subject of post natal depression has been undertaken in Hesperian societies (viz. Kumar, R. 2004). The consequence of this observation is that such research generally does not take into account the range of psychosocial experiences that are associated with other cultures and civilisations where there are differing rate of lone motherhood, differing degrees of social support and family bonding, quite a apart from the different emphasis placed on relationships within marriage, kinship and family. All of these factors will intuitively impact on the incidence and nature (and possibly the clinical presentation) of post natal depression.3. Define how you are using the notion of culture for the pur poses of the assignment. judge to make explicit answers to the following questions What evidence and research did you use to describe and analyse the customers/users cultural perspectives, needs and any other factors that might influence their understanding and interpretation of health, illness and treatments? How did you gather the evidence? Evidence here must include the client/users own narratives. What were your determinations? For example, how did the user/client describe their experience and how did their story vista with what you observed in practice? How did it fit with theory you have read? Were they seen as difficult or good clients by practitioners if so on what grounds and how might this be explained?Culture is a complex concept. about definitions refer to various patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance. Cultures can be understood as systems of symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another (Findley A et al. 2006)Mrs. Ns culture was a profound consideration in this case. Unlike many of her countrywomen, she had not become in any way anglicised and was, to a large extent, completely unprepared for the immense cultural changes that she experienced between her lifetime home in agricultural Bangladesh and her new home in suburban London. If one adds to this the inevitable stresses of her first pregnancy, the loss of support of her (albeit critical) family and the advent of post natal depression.Bangladeshi culture regards childbirth as a major life event, generally with a greater significance than in western civilisations. (Cox, J. L. 2006). It is specifically considered to be one of the major rites of passage of a woman, not only from childhood to adulthood, but also into social respectability. (Gautam, S et al. 1992). Bangladeshi society has a number of specific ri tuals, prohibitions and proscriptions which typically accompany the passage of the woman into motherhood which are generally not found in western societies. These rituals both aid and guide the new mother, as well as providing the social support networks, to help the new mother adapt to her newly acquired role. It has been suggested that these rituals may assist in protecting new mothers from becoming depressed. (Seel, R. M. 1996)In the case of Mrs. N however, it is clear that she had no back up of such rituals or social network support, as she found herself being suddenly removed from her familiar society and being suddenly transported (at a very critical and emotionally charged time in her life) into an alien an unknown culture where she could not easily communicate with the healthcare professionals who were trying to help her.In a landmark study of transcultural birthing practices in 1983, Stern Kruckman found surprisingly little evidence of the phenomenon identified in Western diagnoses as postpartum depression and suggested that the lack of post-partum rituals in Western society might be a cause of postnatal depression. (Stern, G et al. 1983). The authors support this finding with the comment that The effectiveness of counselling in treating the condition may be through its re-creation of post-partum structure and the provision of social support which might formerly have been provided by the extended family (in Asian societies) and public quotation of the new role.An additional feature which was not immediately apparent, but only came to light later in the trajectory of the management of the illness, was the fact that Mrs. N felt ashamed that she had given birth to a baby girl. In Bangladeshi culture it is considered a sign of cultural status to have boys, particularly the first child. Shaheen R et al. 2006). The fact that Mrs. N had a girl reduced her own self esteem enormously.4. You should develop a watchword of the estimation of the persons actual and potential cultural needs, with type to a specific theoretical perspective that has been introduced in the module e.g. social class and effects on health or the impact of illness on the family. As far as possible, use the evidence of the client/users own words to provide a more vivid cleverness of the client/users view and to give a robust basis for your own analysis and discussion.Studies which have considered the cultural implications of post natal depression lay to a number of factors which can be considered independent jeopardy factors for the development of post natal depression. (Kit, L. K et al. 1997). In specific regard to the case of Mrs. N , one can identify many of these as being relevant to her case.We shall consider each factor in turn.Many studies point to a number of factors that are a cause of happiness in pregnancy (which reduce the incidence of post natal depression) and these include find of pregnancy and the awareness of foetal movement. There is no doub t that Mrs. N was delighted to find that she was pregnant, not only because it pleased Mrs S, but also it meant that she would join her husband in the UK. This has to be contrasted with the disconfirming factors including the initial difficulty in conception in Asian families as being a factor which increases the likelihood of post natal depression. (Mari, J et al. 1999)Further negative associations were physical illness and discomfort, nausea, tiredness and a lack of sleep, (OHara, M. W et al. 1996) all of which were relevant to Mrs. N as she had bad back pain from about 18 weeks onwards which limited both her mobility and her ability to sleep comfortably. This pain did not resolve quickly after delivery and the lack of sleep persisted as she tried to establish breast feeding and experienced great difficulty as the baby did not feed well and consequently would not sleep well.The role of healthcare professionals is often cited as a cause of postnatal unhappiness in studies that in volve Asian women (viz. Pillsbury, B. L. K. (1998) gestation period staff who are unsympathetic, and little time to talk (or difficulty in talking) are the commonest negative associations. Mrs. N certainly experienced both of these factors with some of the hospital staff and found her hospital visits very difficult.Fortunately Mrs. N has a normal, relatively atraumatic delivery which therefore spared her another independent risk factor for post natal depression.5. How were these cultural needs addressed? If they were not, or only partially met, say so and describe in what way you feel they might have been better achieved.Mrs. Ns cultural needs were not met in a number of ways. Clearly the family support that she would normally expect to count upon was limited to her husband. This comment has to be seen in the context that her husband was a man, although she had known him for several years she had never lived in close dependent proximity to him before she was pregnant. In the same wa y, Mr. N was also a comparative stranger to this situation and he did not have other members of his family group to advise and support him. In the context of this small nuclear family unit (which clearly is not the cultural norm in Bangladesh) it was not surprising that tempers were frayed and that Mr. N did not always support his wife. It is possible that he did not even cut the signs of the pathophysiology of the post natal depression.The language difficulty persisted. The hospital services provided a translator, but this lady was not present at every antecedent that Mrs. N attended the hospital and therefore she sometimes had to rely on other Bangladeshi women to translate and to help her. Clearly this was far from satisfactory.6. tender a conclusion with some indication of how your experience of this particular persons needs have informed your practice and evaluate your own interactions and experience with the client/user/patient and their carers. For further details on subm itting assessments, pass requirements and other information please refer to the separate assessment pack.I have considered the case of Mrs. N at great length and reflected on its implications for my personal practice. (Palmer 2005). It is with some sadness that I look back. It seems clear that Mrs. N had a number of circumstances relevant to her post natal depression which were largely beyond her control. The fact that her world was uprooted while she was in the early stages of pregnancy and she was transported to a culture that was alien to anything that she had previously known, clearly was a major de-stabilising factor for her. The factors which could have been changed would have to be the fact that an empathetic translator could have been present at every interaction with the healthcare professionals and this might have not only eased her problems but might have given the healthcare professionals a reciprocal perceptivity into her predicament.With her past history, one might re asonably deduce that she had a number of major risk factors for post natal depression and therefore it should have been actively considered from the point of delivery. There is a considerable body of evidence which suggests that the earlier post natal depression is positively diagnosed and aggressively treated, the less severe its eventual trajectory becomes. (Dennis C L 2005). The language difficulties, tenderness of cultural difficulties and a reluctance on the part of Mrs. N to seek help all contributed to her post natal depression reaching quite a severe level before it was finally recognised.References Asten P, M. N. Marks, and M. R. Oates (2004) Aims, measures, study sites and player samples of the Transcultural Study of Postnatal Depression. The British Journal of psychopathology, February 1, 2004 184 (46) s3 s9.CEMD (2001) Confidential Enquiries into maternal Deaths Why Mothers Die 1997 1999. The Fifth Report of the UK Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths. London Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists.Cox, J. L. (2006) Perinatal mental disorders a cultural approach. multinational reappraisal of Psychiatry, 8, 9 -16.Dennis C L (2005) Psychosocial and psychological interventions for prevention of postnatal depression systematic review. BMJ 2005 331 15 (2 July),Findley, Carther Vaughn and John Alexander Rothney (2006). Twentieth-century World. Sixth edition, p. 14.Gautam, S., Nijhawan, M. Gehlot, P. S. (1992) Post partum psychiatric syndromes an analysis of 100 consecutive cases Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 24, 383 386.Kit, L. K., Janet, G. Jegasothy, R. (1997) Incidence of postnatal depression in Malaysian women. Journal of Obstetric and Gynaecology Research, 23, 85 89.Kumar, R. (2004) Postnatal mental illness a transcultural perspective. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 29, 250 264Mari, J., Sen, B. Cheng, T. A. (1999) Case definition and case identification in cross-cultural perspective. In The Scope of E pidemiological Psychiatry (eds P. Williams, G. Wilkinson K. Rawnsley). London Routledge. 1999Marks, M. N., Wieck, A., Checkly, S. A., et al (1992) portion of psychological and social factors to psychotic and non-psychotic relapse after childbirth in women with previous histories of affective disorder Journal of Affective Disorders, 24, 253 263.Murray, J. Cooper, P. J. (2003) The impact of postpartum depression on child development. In Aetiological Mechanisms in developmental Psychopathology (ed. I. Goodyer). Oxford Oxford University Press. 2003OHara, M. W. Swain, A. M. (1996) Rates and risk of postpartum depression a meta-analysis International Review of Psychiatry, 8, 37 54.Palmer (2005) in Learning about reflection from the schoolchild Bulpitt and Martin Active Learning in Higher Education. 2005 6 207 217.Pillsbury, B. L. K. (1998) Doing the month travail and convalescence of Chinese women after childbirth. Social Science and Medicine, 12, 11 22.Seel, R. M. (1996) support rite. Health Visitor, 59, 11 22.Shaheen R, Andres de Francisco, Shams El Arifeen, Eva-Charlotte Ekstrm, and Lars ke Persson (2006) Effect of prenatal food accessory on birth weight an observational study from Bangladesh. Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, Jun 2006 83 1355 1361.Stern, G. Kruckman, L. (1983) Multidisciplinary perspectives on postpartum depression an anthropological critique. Social Science and Medicine, 17, 1027 -1041.Tseng, W. Hus, J. (2001) Culture and Family Problems and Therapy. New York Haworth Press.1.7.08 Word count 3,070 PDG

Evidence For And Against Climate Change Environmental Sciences Essay

Evidence For And Against clime transmute environmental Sciences EssayClimate spay is a very contr all all oversial globular subject which has committed supporters and detractors. Critically evaluate the evidence for and against clime swop and provide your own assessment of the current and future risks that the planet faces by 2050.It is expected that you give give a broad view of your put in giving weight to policy, regulatory, economic and risk management impacts as wholesome as health and environmental impacts. Use a case hire to illustrate a key component of the mode flip agenda.The worlds humour is changing and the consequences are serious, wide ranging and long. Despite the overwhelming scientific consensus that this is happening, the issue of humor qualifying has its detractors, whose opposition to the phenomenon range from disagreeing about the period of the problem, the extent of mans influence, to the accuracy of the modeling techniques. During the essay t he evidence from both sides will be evaluated and the current and longer term economic, social, and environmental effects assessed.The definitions of climate change vary greatly, but the both just about useful are the fall in Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) definition where slackly speaking climate change relates to a change in climate which is attributed, moderately or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the spherical atmosphere and that is in addition to rude(a) climate variability sight over comparable age periods and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity, which is by chance a more(prenominal) useful definition.Firstly before looking at the evidence for climate change it is useful to belowstand the world(prenominal) strength flow (radiative budget), which was first suggested by Kiehl and T renbirth (1997), illustrated in picture 1 at a lower placePicture 1The incoming solar actin otherapy, often labelled in percentage terms, must match the outgoing short and longwave radiation to get to radiative equilibrium. Radiative forcing is the measure of the influence that a specific factor has in fixture the balance of this incoming and outgoing energy, and is therefore a useful indication of the importance of that factor to change the climate. Positive forcing will generally toy with that the surface of the earth is warmed, whilst negative forcing tends to cool the surface.The Kyoto protocol, adopted in declination 1997 and entering into force in February 2005, committed all Annex1 countries (39 industrialised countries the EU) to a reduction in four babys room gases (Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide and Sulfur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases called hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) (often found in refridgerants) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) (also in refridgerants but having a wide novelty of medical and non-medical uses and according to Askam, Khalil et al. (2003) having a lifetime up to 50,000 years).Carbon dioxide is perchance the most studied and well known of the anthropogenic GHGs. Since some infra-red radiation leaving the planet is absorbed by CO2, the greater the CO2 the greater the absorbtion and reflection of heat and the warmer the climate.Perhaps the most significant index finger of the enlarge in the direct of CO2 in the last 50 years is shown in graph 1 below. This is the measurement of CO2 concentrations as measured in Hawaii, far from industrial areas so no localised bias is present, though these measurements have been replicated around the world (e.g. Pieter P. Tans and Thomas J. Conway 1968-2002) periodic Atmospheric CO2 Mixing Ratios from the NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics science laboratory Carbon Cycle Cooperative Global Air Sampling Network, 1968-2002. NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado 80305, U.S.A.)Graph 1Image created by Robert A. Rohde / www.globalwarmingart.comSimilar measurements have been found in ice core samples, which enable us to get a much better picture over time. Graph 2 below shows the CO2 variations over time from the yesteryear 420,000 years.Graph 2Image created by Robert A. Rohde / www.globalwarmingart.comThis shows the CO2 levels fluctuating in line with the ice-ages, however, the most important section is the insert the marked ontogeny since the industrial revolution from around 1750/1800. A clear indication of manhood influence.More evidence is given in the IPCC 4th Annual composing Working Group summary that the concentration of atmospheric CO2 has increase from 280ppm (pre-industrial level) to 379ppm in 2005. In addition the annual CO2 concentration reaping was larger during the last 10 years (1995-2005 1.9ppm per year) than it has been since the beginning of continuous direct atmospheric measurements (1960-2005 1.4 ppm per year).In a similar fashion the levels of Methane (from a pre-industrial level of 715ppb to 1732ppb in the early 1990s and 1774ppb in 2005) and Nitrous oxide (from pre-industrial levels of round 270ppb to 319ppb in 2005) have increased markedly over recent years.Looking at the radiative forcing discussed earlier theThere are many different indications of how the climate has altered, and over several different timescales ranging from the most recent 150 years since 1860, since roughly the time of industrial revolution since 1750 and for the past 10-100 thousand years. Each of these will be looked at in turn.The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change in its most recent report in 2007 stated warm up of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and ascent global average sea level.Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since th e mid-20th century is very potential due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. This is an advance since the TARs conclusion that most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is credibly to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations. discernable human influences now extend to other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continental-average temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patternsThe time series shows the combined global land and marine surface temperature book from 1850 to 2009. The year 2009 was the sixth warmest on platter, exceeded by 1998, 2005, 2003, 2002, and 2004. This time series is being compiled jointly by the Climatic look into Unit and the UK Met. Office Hadley Centre. The record is being continually up-dated and improved (see Brohan et al., 2006). This paper includes a new and more thorough assessment of errors, recognizing that these differ on annual and decadal timescales. Increased c oncentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities are most likely the underlying cause of warming in the 20th century.Brohan, P., J.J. Kennedy, I. Harris, S.F.B. Tett and P.D. Jones, 2006 Un induction estimates in regional and global observed temperature changes a new entropyset from 1850. J. Geophysical Research 111, D12106, doi10.1029/2005JD006548http//www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/info/DetractorsIn a debate that has become highly polarised the label climate sceptic is readily slapped on anybody who stands on the tree stump and contradicts Al Gore. In reality, the sceptic landscape is more varied, ranging from those scurrilously act scientific truth to others with more obvious economic or governmental gains to play for.Richard Lindzen, an American atmospheric physicist at the Massachusetts Institute of technology has been one of the most vocal in expressing concerns over the validity of electronic computer models used to predict future climate change. He ar gues that they may be over-predicting future warming due to a failure to properly estimate for the climate systems water vapour feedback. However he has also been an diligent contributor to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reports.Gavin Schmidt, a climatologist at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies commented that Lindzen agrees with about 90 per cent of what other climate scientists are saying, yet the last 10 per cent is sufficiently different to label him a contrarian.Stephen McIntyre, editor of sceptic blog ClimateAudit and antecedent director of several state-owned Canadian mineral exploration companies, is known in the climate science community for his continual demands for raw info.McIntryre was behind an orchestrate campaign that led to 60 Freedom of Information requests being do to CRU scientists at the University of East Anglia in a single weekend in July.However, while potentially vexatious, McIntyre has made genuine scientific contributi ons, notably spy a mistake in NASA data that led to the average US temperatures to be reduced about 0.15C for the period 2000-2006.Philip Stott, an emeritus professor of biogeography at the University of London (although not a published climate scientist), has publicly argued that the climate is also complex and chaotic a system to make long-term predictions on.None of these scientists are climate change deniers, but they question the certainty of the scientific consensus.Several Tory MPs have recently contradicted the Green bourgeois line of the Cameron era.Peter Lilley, one of only three MPs to balloting against the governments Climate Change Bill in October, has accused climatologists of an unconscious combination in which a dogmatic determination to conform to a consensus driven by the incentive of public funding has made them happier to let the data fit the theory rather than the opposite.David Davis has also spoken out on what he describes as a ferocious determination to impose hair shirt policies on the public. Taxes on holiday flights and noisy wind turbines are too high a price to pay, he suggests. Both MPs arrogate to be open to the possibility that man has significantly contributing to climate change, but both remain unconvinced by the evidence.Former Tory premier Nigel Lawson, has also publicly stepped up his opposition to environmental policy, founding the appreciate cooler, the Global Warming Policy Foundation, complete with a board of evenhandedly distinguished academics to provide scepticism with a respectable face. However, the think tank was this week accused by scientists of seeming to misrepresent scientific data on its website.At the far end of the spectrum, figures such as Sarah Palin appear to be happy to disregard scientific evidence wholesale in favour of economic gain.Despite substantial differences in outlook, bundled together under the sceptic brand, the views of these individuals appear to be increasingly gaining favour w ith the public in the lead up to Copenhagen.PLANFor climate changeAgainst climate changeCase studyAssessment of current risksAssessment of future risks to 2050

Motives for British Imperialism in Africa Essays -- Imperialism Africa

Motives for British Imperialism in AfricaBefore the Europeans began the New Imperialism in Africa, very particular was known ab come out the inner parts of the continent. However, later some explorers delved deeper into the tenderheartedness of Africa, the Europeans soon realized how economically important this area was, and how such(prenominal) they could profit from it. At the time, Britain had only small occupations of land in Africa, but after they realized that they could make capital from the rich resources from the inner regions of Africa, they cherished to busy the African countries and take over. This led to the scramble and ultimately, the partition of Africa. During the Age of Imperialism, from 1870-1914, Britain was a major country, which proved to be true in the carving up and division of Africa. Britain was one of the strongest of the European countries, and had the power to take over more of the about valuable lands with the most rich and abundant supplies of raw materials and separate resources. There were five main reasons for their imperialism. They were political and military interests, humanitarian and apparitional goals, ideological, exploratory, and lastly, but most importantly, economic interests. As for the political reasons, Britain simply wanted to remain competitive with other countries, such as Germany and France. At the time, the British had no affiliate, and the other countries such as France and Germany, were getting economically more stable. By taking over Africa, and setting up colonies, they would have allies and a sense of protection. Germany and France were also some of the bigger powers in Europe, and the British feared them because they needed to keep up with the competition of their rival countries. They were pretty much forced to practice imperialism because of the growing threat of Germany and France. The British continued to be imperialists until the beginning of World War 1, in 1914, because they feared t hat they might lose their empire. They conquered and added on many parts of Africa, such as Egypt, South Africa, Nigeria, the Suez canalize, etc In most cases, the reasons for this was that were able to colonize these people and gain alliances with them and also to send out the message to other countries that they were still competitive. One prime example of this, was how Britain bought the Suez Canal into their own power. Fredinand de Lesseps, a Frenc... ...e from India. That was the underlying tenet of all British imperialism. passim history, the British have been a nation of sailors and businessmen. With the dawn of the imperial era, money began to equal power, and the wealth of the British elevated them to the top of the earthly concern. As Sir Walter capital of North Carolina said, Whosoever commands the sea commands the trade whosoever commands the trade of the world commands the riches of the world, and consequently the world itself. India was where the riches of the world came from, the jewel in the crown of the British Empire. The British needed to dispel the threat of other Europeans in Africa to maintain overcome of India, and they did so efficiently. They quickly gained control of both the major sea routes to India and consequently turned their eyes to the rest of the continent. Whether the British were trying to foster reality support or prevent another nation from becoming a threat, all British actions in Africa were directly or indirectly link to India. The British were motivated by their desire to become powerful, and they skillfully have enterprise and conquest to create a globe spanning empire have-to doe with around the wealth of India.

Some Lead, Some Follow, Others Change the World Essay -- Civil Rights

When being asked which civic Rights activist of the movement was most sound, the answer is quite obvious. This movement originated referable to what is called Jim Crow laws. These laws suggested that everyone is separate solely equal. Otherwise became blindingly apparent when African Americans were soft by whites in various ways. For example, the justice system always considered the example of white man over a black one. Also, an African American facility was certainly not comparable to the superior quality of colors. Soon, organizations began to form in attempts to stop this unjust treatment. One man in particular stands out the most throughout this movement of change Dr. Martin Luther top executive younger Martin Luther King Jr.s form of protesting was the more effective than activist Malcolm X and was the reason for the majority of success during the cultured Rights movement. This is because Malcolm Xs cause would only slow progress during the movement, Martin Luther King Jr . had more authority, and he understood that peaceful protesting is the very genesis of redefining a nation. Malcolm Xs cause did not support any progress in the cultured Rights movement. If anything, his efforts deterred any progress by encouraging separation. Malcolm X looked up to the Black Muslim leader Elijah Muhammad. Muhammads campaign was ground around whites being descended from the devil and being born to harm blacks. Malcolm presently adopted and idolized this ideology that not only reached toward separate nations, but frightened whites. Considering this, the chemical group the Black Panthers in which Malcolm X formed afterward on created their own schools, businesses and newspapers in order to further segregate themselves from whites. This group was encouraged by the ide... ...t. He built bridges between races, not walls like Malcolm X. Malcolm Xs cause would only dismiss the goals of the Civil Rights movement. Also, Martin Luther King Jr. had more of an impact am ongst his public. Lastly, he contributed to the ongoing head that acting in a peaceful manor give charter goals much more attainable. Martin Luther King Jr. had a very despotic impact on not only his public, but this nation. He will never be forgotten within history. Works CitedLevy, Peter B. let Freedom Ring a Documentary History of the Modern Civil Rights Movement. New York Praeger, 1992. Glencoe. Online Student Edition. Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. 2008. Web. .Cruz, Kimberly. Comparing Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. Http//www.polk-fl.net. Web. .

The Flu :: Influenza Virus

THE FLUThe grippe is the uncouth name in fluenza which is a virus that attacks the respiratory system. The flu virus releases its genetic information into the cells nucleus to replicate itself. When the cell dies, those copies atomic number 18 released and they incite other cells throughout the rest of the body. With that happening the virus weakens the immune system. When your mordant with the flu, your body builds up a defense by making antibodies against it. The flu virus spreads through air when a person coughs, sneezes, or speaks.The Flu was first founded in Seattle September, 1918. The avian flu put forward also be known as the Bird Flu. The bird flu is existence passed around by migratory birds. It can be transmitted from birds to mammals and in some limited circumstances to humans. The flu will also be known as the H5N1 virus. The H5N1 virus has raised concerns about a correspondingly human pandemic because its virulent (deadly extremely dangerous) and it can evolv e like other influenza viruses. As many other viruses and illnesses the flu can be a lot more deadlier. When you get the flu the lungs are severely harmed from infected cells called macrophages and T-cells. The virus can spread way beyond the lungs just now generally do not. Many people catch the flu and think they have the common cold because of some of the same symptoms. only when actually the flu can be more dangerous if you move intot treat it immediately.Ways to prevent the fluWash your turn over thoroughly and frequently neer pick up used tissuesNever share cups and/or used utensilsAlways cover your mouth and nest with a tissue when you cough or sneezeStay base of operations when you get sickResearch also says that after 5 eld the fever and other symptoms have disappeared nevertheless a cough and flunk may continue. Usually all symptoms are gone within a week or two. But its important to treat the flu severely because it can lead to other viruses such as pneumonia an d other stark complications. For the most part it appears in infants, senior citizens, and people with long verge health problems. People with the flu may not know but they are actually contagious from a day before they witness sick. It would usually be one week for adults and two weeks for young kids.Anyone at any age can have serious complications with the flu but those at high risk are people over 50 years old, children between 6 months and 2 years, women more than 3 months large(predicate) the flu season, anyone living in a long-term care facility, and anyone with inveterate heart, lung or kidney conditions, diabetes, or weakened immune system.

The Development Context Essay -- Politics Political Economics Essays

The Development Context This study falls at the convergence of several key themes or passs in International Development. These include the debate about the role and effectiveness of official international assistance agencies, the remains of thought on the micropolitical forces which shape the development assistance process, and the debate oer the ecological limits to and sustainabiltiy of economic growth. The following sections will review the most important concepts and some of the authors associated with those themes.1) What do international donor agencies do, and do they do it well(p)? Somediscussion has been given in the literature to approach taken by international donor agencies to development assistance. For the most part, this discussion has cogitate on the fact that large governmental and bureaucratic agencies lack the flexibleness to adapt to changing conditions and be effective at grassroots-level implementation. In a scathing condemnation of official internatio nal development assistance, Korten (1990) asserts that such efforts are defined by the bounds of bureaucratic convenience, and that there has been a self-coloured preference in international assistance for short-term, narrowly-focused, and self-interested efforts. Hellinger et al. (1988), in an assessment of the U.S. government agency for International Development, suggest that even when more farsighted and well-designed approaches emerge, they face sexual structures, operational procedures, and reward systems geared to promote objectives related primarily to expansionary David C. Korten, acquiring to the twenty-first Century, West Hartford, CT Kumarian Press, 1990, pp. 36-137. and survival interests of the AID bureaucracyiIn the context of this criticism and dom... ...r Lynne Rienner. 1988.Hirschmann, David. Women and policy-making Participation in Africa. Public Domain. 1990.Kasfir, Nelson. Explaining Ethnic Political Participation. (in State of Development in the Third Wo rld. Princeton Princeton University Press. 1986.)Kolenda, Pauline. Caste in Contemporary India Beyond Organic Solidarity. Prospect Heights, IL Waveland Press. 1985.Korten, David C. Getting to the 21st Century. West Hartford, CT Kumarian Press. 1990.Lipsky, Michael. The Rationing of Services in Street-Level Bureaucracies. Street-Level Bureaucracy. New York judicious Foundation. 1980.Meadows, Donella et al. Beyond the Limits. Post Mills, VT Chelsea Green. 1992.Robertson, C. and I. Berger. Women and Class in Africa. New York Holmes & Meier. 1986. Ibid, p. 24. Samarasinghe, Vidya. Hangin in at the Margin. Public Domain. 1992.